Subnetting an IP Network can be done for a variety of reasons, including organization, use of different physical media (such as Ethernet, FDDI, WAN, etc.), preservation of address space, and security. The most common reason is to control network traffic. In an Ethernet network, all nodes on a segment see all the packets transmitted by all the other nodes on that segment. Performance can be adversely affected under heavy traffic loads, due to collisions and the resulting retransmissions. A router is used to connect IP networks to minimize the amount of traffic each segment must receive.
Subnet Masking
Applying a subnet mask to an IP address allows you to identify the network and node parts of the address. The network bits are represented by the 1s in the mask, and the node bits are represented by the 0s. Performing a bitwise logical AND operation between the IP address and the subnet mask results in the Network Address or Number.
For example, using our test IP address and the default Class B subnet mask, we get:
10001100.10110011.11110000.11001000 140.179.240.200 Class B IP Address
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 255.255.000.000 Default Class B Subnet Mask
--------------------------------------------------------
10001100.10110011.00000000.00000000 140.179.000.000 Network Address
Default subnet masks:
* Class A - 255.0.0.0 - 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
* Class B - 255.255.0.0 - 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
* Class C - 255.255.255.0 - 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
"CROSS CABLE"
An Ethernet crossover cable is a type of Ethernet cable used to connect computing devices together directly where they would normally be connected via a network switch, hub or router, such as directly connecting two personal computers via their network adapters.
ISTILAH NETWORK
TCP/IP-TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL/INTERNET PROTOCOL
SUBNEETING-THE INTERNET PROTOCOL SUITE
ISTILAH DALAM APPLICATION:
NTP-NETWORK TIME PROTOCOL
NNTP-NETWORK NEWS TRANSFER PROTOCOL
DNS-DOMAIN NAME PROTOCOL
HTTP-HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL
TRANSPORT LAYER
TCP-TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL
UDP-USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL
DCCP-DATAGRAM CONGESTION CONTROL PROTOCOL
PERBEZAAN TCP/IP DENGAN OSI
SUBNEETING-THE INTERNET PROTOCOL SUITE
ISTILAH DALAM APPLICATION:
NTP-NETWORK TIME PROTOCOL
NNTP-NETWORK NEWS TRANSFER PROTOCOL
DNS-DOMAIN NAME PROTOCOL
HTTP-HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL
TRANSPORT LAYER
TCP-TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL
UDP-USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL
DCCP-DATAGRAM CONGESTION CONTROL PROTOCOL
PERBEZAAN TCP/IP DENGAN OSI
FIBER OPTIK
Dalam sistem gentian optic, ia membawa isyarat dalam bentuk pancran cahaya.Gentian ini sesuai digunakan bagi penghantaran pada jarak jauh. Gentian ini mempunyai kehilangan kuasa yang kurang. Terdapat tiga elemen utama dalam sistem komunikasi gentian optic iaitu sumber cahaya (pemancar), gentian optic dan pengesan cahaya(penerima).
perbezaan gentian optik dengan kabel biasa.
Gentian optik digunakan secara meluas disebabkan kelebihannya berbandin dengan sistem perhubungan kabel biasa. Gentian ini bukan sahaja mempunyai kos yanag murah malah ianya menydiakan perkhidmatan yanag tidak terdapat dalam teknologi lain.
Di antara kebaikan gentian optic adalah lebar jalur yang luas, saiz diameter yang kecil dan ringan, terhindar dari gangguan induktif, pemancaran berkualiti tinggi, kos pemasangan dan operasi yang murah, jangka hayat yang lama dan lebih selamat.
1. LEBAR JALUR YANG LUAS
Gentian optic mempunyai lebar jalur yang luas. Oleh itu, ianya kerap digunakan sebagai antara muka penghantaran terutamanya pada perhubungan jarak jauh yang mempunyai kos ynag terhad. Lebar jalur yang luas membolehkan lebih banyak maklumat dapat dihantar melaluai gentian optik dalam bentuk kumpulan saluran yang banyak.
2. SAIZ DIAMETER YANG KECIL DAN RINGAN
Gentian ini mempunyai saiz sehalus sehelai rambut manusia. Gentian ini disaluti pembalut yang berfungsi sebagai perlindung. Saiz yang kecil membolehkan ianya diselitkan di bawah sdaluran yang saedia ada tanpa memerlukan saluran yang baru. Ianya bukan sahaja mempunyai kos yang murah malah penjimatan dari pengangkutan dan penyimpanan. Oleh itu, ianya lebih mudah dikawal dengan kabel sepaksi.
3. TERHINDAR DARI GANGUAN INDUKTIF.
Penghantaran melalui gentian optik bebas daripada hangar. Ini kerana, gentian optik tidak bersifat seperti antenna yang menerima gangguan frekuensi radio (RFI) dan gangguan elktromegnet (EMI atau EMPS). Gentian optic terhindar dari gangguan disebabkan oleh pencahayaan yang membolehkannya terhindar dari gangguan tenaga elektrik. Oleh itu, ianya dapat beroperasi dalam persekitaran yang terdapat hangar elektrik seperti persekitaran nuclear.
4. PEMANCARAN YANG BERKUALITI TIGGI
Pemancaran yang dihasilkan berkualiti tinggi disebabkan gentian optic terhindar daripada hangar. Gentian ini menghasilkan sistem komunikasi yang berkualiti lebih tinggi berbanding talian penghantaran biasa dan gelombang mikro
5. KOS PEMASANGAN DAN OPERASI YANG MURAH
Lebar jalur yang luas dan kurang kuasa kehilangan meningkatkan ruang ulangan. Oleh itu, ianya mengurangkan kos modal satah luaran. Semakin ringkas, semakin kurang kuasa diperlukan dan peralatan terminal mempunyai kebolehn yang lebih tinggi. Pemasangan gentian optic lebih mudah berbanding sistem talian penghantaran disebabkan gentian tidak memerlukan kesepadanan, penyejukan atau masalah persekitaran.
6. JANGKA HAYAT YANG PANJANG.
Gentian optic mempunyai jangka hayat yang lama sehigga 20 ke 50 tahun berbanding kabel talian penghantaran lain yang hanya mampu bertahan selama 12 ke 15 tahun sahaja.
7. LEBIH SELAMAT.
Gentian optic lebih selamat digunakan disebabkan hanya gelombang cahaya yang mengalir melaluinya dan bukannya tenaga elektrik. Jika berlaku kerosakan pada kabel gentian optic tiada masalah litar pintas berlaku. Kabel ini juga boleh diperbaiki dalam keadaan semua terminal dihidupkan.
TCP/IP
"TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL / INTERNET PROTOCOL"
The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the TCP/IP reference model because it wanted a network that could survive any conditions.
Some of the layers in the TCP/IP model have the same name as layers in the OSI mode
APPLICATION-Handles high-level protocols, issues of representation, encoding, and dialog control.
EXAMPLES-NTP, NMTP, DNS, HTTP AND ELS.
TRANSPORTS-Five basic services:
*Segmenting upper-layer application data
*Establishing end-to-end operations
*Sending segments from one end host to another end host
*Ensuring data reliability
*Providing flow control
EXAMPLES-TCP, WDP, DCCP AND ELS
INTERNET-The purpose of the Internet layer is to send packets from a network node and have them arrive at the destination node independent of the path taken.
EXAMPLES-IP, ICMP, AND ELS
NETWORK ACCESS-The network access layer is concerned with all of the issues that an IP packet requires to actually make a physical link to the network media
EXAMPLES-ETHERNET, PROXY ARP,FAST ETHERNET AND ELS
syair terindah tentang kehidupan....
Hayat yang indah
Di sisi tiang berukir atas renda sejadah
kudus tulus doa fakir yang amat gundah.
Khusyuknya utama mengharap restu abadi
surah-surah suci demi hidup dan mati.
Meluncur unggas menara tergetar rumput taman,
bayu berlagu syahdu di kalbu yang rindu;
bagitu buana berdetak dalam hikmah masa,
begitu ghairah hasrat seganjil rahsia senja.
Yang dikenal wajah dan disangsi maruah;
disapa cakerawala, yang diuji manusia.
Demi hari demi sepi hati inti diri
dan demi malam salam menghiasi alam.
Bilal dan bibir, jemaah dan fakir,
tamsil kasih dalam kemelut getir.
Awal teka-teki di tangan yang alpa
kini rendang mengharumi darma ibadah.
Dari hening azan nafas meranum uman;
meresap rindu ke puncak reda Tuhan -
pesan tak bersuara di hati telah terkata
jiwa seindah rimba anugerah Maha Kuasa.
Rehal dan Quran, serindit dan nisan
damai dalam firman Allah Yang Esa,
terpercik kirai cahaya meluhuri dada
dan sabda Muhammad mengindahi hayat kita.
A Samad Said
27-30 Disember 1996
*Kehidupan Islami itu amat mensyahdukan, apalagi anugerah untuk hidup itu sendiri sudah sesuatu yang indah, betapa pun geloranya.
Di sisi tiang berukir atas renda sejadah
kudus tulus doa fakir yang amat gundah.
Khusyuknya utama mengharap restu abadi
surah-surah suci demi hidup dan mati.
Meluncur unggas menara tergetar rumput taman,
bayu berlagu syahdu di kalbu yang rindu;
bagitu buana berdetak dalam hikmah masa,
begitu ghairah hasrat seganjil rahsia senja.
Yang dikenal wajah dan disangsi maruah;
disapa cakerawala, yang diuji manusia.
Demi hari demi sepi hati inti diri
dan demi malam salam menghiasi alam.
Bilal dan bibir, jemaah dan fakir,
tamsil kasih dalam kemelut getir.
Awal teka-teki di tangan yang alpa
kini rendang mengharumi darma ibadah.
Dari hening azan nafas meranum uman;
meresap rindu ke puncak reda Tuhan -
pesan tak bersuara di hati telah terkata
jiwa seindah rimba anugerah Maha Kuasa.
Rehal dan Quran, serindit dan nisan
damai dalam firman Allah Yang Esa,
terpercik kirai cahaya meluhuri dada
dan sabda Muhammad mengindahi hayat kita.
A Samad Said
27-30 Disember 1996
*Kehidupan Islami itu amat mensyahdukan, apalagi anugerah untuk hidup itu sendiri sudah sesuatu yang indah, betapa pun geloranya.
TIPS "BETTER LIFE"
Tips for Better Life from ISHA YOGA1. Take a 10-30 minutes walk every day. And while
you walk, smile.
2. Sit in silence for at least 10 minutes each day.
3. Sleep for 7 hours.
4. Live with the 3 E's -- Energy, Enthusiasm, and Empathy.
5. Play more games.
6. Read more books than you did in 2007.
7. Make time to practice meditation, yoga, and prayer. They provide us with daily fuel
for our busy lives.
8. Spend time with people over the age of 70 & under the age of 6.
9. Dream more while you are awake.
10. Eat more foods that grow on trees and plants and eat less food that is manufactured
in plants.
11. Drink plenty of water.
12. Try to make at least three people smile each day.
13. Don't waste your precious energy on gossip.
14. Forget issues of the past. Don't remind your partner with his/her mistakes of the
past. That will ruin your present happiness.
15. Don't have negative thoughts or things you cannot control. Instead invest your
energy in the positive present moment.
16. Realize that life is a school and you are here to learn. Problems are simply part
of the curriculum that appear and fade away like algebra class but the lessons you
learn will last a lifetime.
17. Eat breakfast like a king, lunch like a prince and dinner like a beggar.
18. Smile and laugh more.
19. Life is too short to waste time hating anyone. Don't hate others.
20. Don't take yourself so seriously. No one else does.
21. You don't have to win every argument. Agree to disagree.
22. Make peace with your past so it won't spoil the present.
23. Don't compare your life to others'. You have no idea what their journey is all
about. Don't compare your partner with others.
24. No one is in charge of your happiness except you.
25. Forgive everyone for everything.
26.. What other people think of you is none of your business.
27. However good or bad a situation is, it will change.
28. Your job won't take care of you when you are sick. Your friends will. Stay in
touch.
29. Get rid of anything that isn't useful, beautiful or joyful.
30. Envy is a waste of time. You already have all you need.
31. The best is yet to come.
32. No matter how you feel, get up, dress up and show up.
33. Do the right thing!
34. Call your family often.
35. Your inner most is always happy. So be happy.
36. Each day give something good to others.
37. Don't over do. Keep your limits.
38. Please Forward this to everyone you care about.
' IF ONE CAN DO IT YOU TOO CAN DO IT, IF NONE CAN DO IT THEN YOU MUST DO
you walk, smile.
2. Sit in silence for at least 10 minutes each day.
3. Sleep for 7 hours.
4. Live with the 3 E's -- Energy, Enthusiasm, and Empathy.
5. Play more games.
6. Read more books than you did in 2007.
7. Make time to practice meditation, yoga, and prayer. They provide us with daily fuel
for our busy lives.
8. Spend time with people over the age of 70 & under the age of 6.
9. Dream more while you are awake.
10. Eat more foods that grow on trees and plants and eat less food that is manufactured
in plants.
11. Drink plenty of water.
12. Try to make at least three people smile each day.
13. Don't waste your precious energy on gossip.
14. Forget issues of the past. Don't remind your partner with his/her mistakes of the
past. That will ruin your present happiness.
15. Don't have negative thoughts or things you cannot control. Instead invest your
energy in the positive present moment.
16. Realize that life is a school and you are here to learn. Problems are simply part
of the curriculum that appear and fade away like algebra class but the lessons you
learn will last a lifetime.
17. Eat breakfast like a king, lunch like a prince and dinner like a beggar.
18. Smile and laugh more.
19. Life is too short to waste time hating anyone. Don't hate others.
20. Don't take yourself so seriously. No one else does.
21. You don't have to win every argument. Agree to disagree.
22. Make peace with your past so it won't spoil the present.
23. Don't compare your life to others'. You have no idea what their journey is all
about. Don't compare your partner with others.
24. No one is in charge of your happiness except you.
25. Forgive everyone for everything.
26.. What other people think of you is none of your business.
27. However good or bad a situation is, it will change.
28. Your job won't take care of you when you are sick. Your friends will. Stay in
touch.
29. Get rid of anything that isn't useful, beautiful or joyful.
30. Envy is a waste of time. You already have all you need.
31. The best is yet to come.
32. No matter how you feel, get up, dress up and show up.
33. Do the right thing!
34. Call your family often.
35. Your inner most is always happy. So be happy.
36. Each day give something good to others.
37. Don't over do. Keep your limits.
38. Please Forward this to everyone you care about.
' IF ONE CAN DO IT YOU TOO CAN DO IT, IF NONE CAN DO IT THEN YOU MUST DO
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